Portland Cement
Most cement used today is Portland cement. This is a carefully proportioned and specially processed combination of lime, silica, iron oxide, and alumina. It is usually manufactured from limestone mixed with shale, clay, or marl. Properly proportioned raw materials are pulverized and fed into kilns where they are heated to a temperature of 2,700°F and maintained at that temperature for a specific time. The heat produces chemical changes in the mixture and transforms it into clinker, a hard mass of fused clay and limestone. The clinker is then ground to a fineness that will pass through a sieve containing 40,000 openings per square inch.
Types of Cement
There are five types of Portland cement covered under Standard Specifications for Portland Cement. The American Society for Testing and Material (ASTM) types govern these specifications. Separate specifications, such as those required for air-entraining Portland cements, are found under a separate ASTM. The type of construction, chemical composition of the soil, economy, and requirements for use of the finished concrete are factors that influence the selection of the kind of cement to use.
Type I – Type I cement is general purpose cement for concrete that does not require any of the special properties of the other types. In general, type I cement is intended for concrete that is not subjected to sulfate attack or damage by the heat of hydration. Type I Portland cement is used in pavement and sidewalk construction, reinforced concrete buildings and bridges, railways, tanks, reservoirs, sewers, culverts, water pipes, masonry units, and soil-cement mixtures. Generally, it is more available than the other types. Type I cement reaches its design strength in about 28 days.
Type II – Type II cement is modified to resist moderate sulfate attack. It also usually generates less heat of hydration and at a slower rate than type I. A typical application is for drainage structures where the sulfate concentrations in either the soil or groundwater are higher than normal but not severe. Type II cement is also used in large structures where its moderate heat of hydration produces only a slight temperature rise in the concrete. The temperature rise in type II cement can be a problem when concrete is placed during warm weather. Type II cement reaches its design strength in about 45 days.
Type III – Type III cement is high early strength cement that produces design strengths at an early age, usually 7 days or less. It has a higher heat of hydration and is more finely ground than type I. Type III permits fast form removal and, in cold weather construction, reduces the period of protection against low temperatures. Richer mixtures of type I can obtain high early strength, but type III produces it more satisfactorily and economically. Use it cautiously in concrete structures having a minimum dimension of 2 1/2 feet or more. While there is no set minimum dimension, take caution with massive placements of concrete, as they will produce more heat. The high heat of hydration can cause shrinkage and cracking.
Type IV – Type IV cement is a special cement. It has a low heat of hydration and is intended for applications requiring a minimal rate and amount of heat of hydration. Its strength also develops at a slower rate than the other types. Type IV is used primarily in very large concrete structures, such as gravity dams, where the temperature rise from the heat of hydration might damage the structure. Type IV cement reaches its design strength in about 90 days.
Type V – Type V cement is sulfate resistant and should be used where concrete is subjected to severe sulfate action, such as when the soil or groundwater contacting the concrete has a high sulfate content. Type V cement reaches its design strength in about 60 days.
Air-Entrained Cement
Air-entrained Portland cement is special cement that can be used with good results for a variety of conditions. It has been developed to produce concrete resistant to freeze thaw action and to scaling caused by chemicals applied for severe frost and ice removal. In this cement, very small quantities of air-entraining materials are added as the clinker is ground during manufacturing. Concrete made with this cement contains tiny, well distributed and completely separated air bubbles. The bubbles are so small that there may be millions of them in a cubic foot of concrete. The air bubbles provide space for freezing water to expand without damaging the concrete. Air-entrained concrete has been used in pavements in the northern United States for about 25 years with excellent results. Air-entrained concrete also reduces both the amount of water loss and the capillary/water channel structure.
An air-entrained admixture may also be added to types I, II, and III Portland cement. The manufacturer specifies the percentage of air entrainment that can be expected in the concrete. An advantage of using air-entrained cement is that it can be used and batched like normal cement. The air-entrained admixture comes in a liquid form or mixed in the cement. To obtain the proper mix, add the admixture at the batch plant. More information on admixtures is included later in this chapter.